"The Tranquilized Poem: The Crisis of New Criticism in the 1950s. In William Empson's 7 Types of Ambiguity, he's on the hunt for complex language to scrutinize under his Close Read-a-Scope. Rather a desperate poem, rather [a] terrible message from art., And then Lowell did something Brooks might not have done: he related those last two lines to Keatss biography. Lowell tactfully pointed out that the presence of the second werewolf made the plot too confusing. Although it may be a bit silly, it's a good place to start. What is the effect of Pound saying chopped seas instead of choppy seas in stanza three of Hugh Selwyn Mauberley? he would inquire. New Criticism is best used when analyzing shorter works, rather than long texts like novels. The poem is also a tetrameter because the iambic rhythm repeats itself four times in each line of the poem. And remembrance of steep alcoves Emerged as a response to a. the "unscientific" nature of literary studies / focus on aesthetics . . How do silence and quietness differ? Lowell asked us. This theory works best with shorter texts, as the form will not change as much and it can be easier to focus on only the text. Tis but thy name that is my enemy:Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.What's Montague? Create your account, 17 chapters | of an ungoverned ocean which when it chooses, tortures the biggest hulls, the best man knows No Fear Literature is available online and in book form at barnesandnoble.com. ' About the phrase remembrance of steep alcoves, he murmured, You get used to Crane saying things like alcoves for some more obvious word.. Her poems have been published in Poetry, The New Yorker, The New York Review of Books, Slate, and PN Review, and in Canadian, American, British, and Irish anthologies. .12, As Brooks so often did, Lowell immediately began to focus on denotation and connotation. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. In other words, this theory analyzes only what is present in a work of. Though their interest in textual study initially met with resistance from older scholars, the methods of the New Critics rapidly predominated in American universities until challenged by feminist literary criticism and structuralism in the 1970s. Richards published Practical Criticism in 1929, a book that analyzed how people responded to poems that they did not know the author of. Cleanth Brooks in his The Well Wrought Urn conceptualized the heresy of paraphrase and proposed that through the use of irony, paradox and ambiguity, a poet works constantly to resist any attempt at reducing the poem to a paraphrasable core. The movement derived its name from John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism. Or Lolita without considering the moral implications of an older man taking a teenage girl as a lover? My Personal New Criticism of "The Garden Party". [Write] something that quotes, evaluates, describes. Know what a real critic is? he joshed. [4] In his essay, "The New Criticism", Cleanth Brooks notes that "The New Critic, like the Snark, is a very elusive beast", meaning that there was no clearly defined "New Critical" manifesto, school, or stance. Ransom's New Criticism became a popular method of literary analysis throughout the middle of the 20th century. Such a text is to be read by the technique of close reading, which would reveal that its formal aspects serve to support the structure of meaning within the text. Where do the line breaks fall? Even if we did determine the authors intentions, they dont matter, because the text itself carries its own value. Despite its radical origins, New Criticism was fundamentally a conservative enterprise. "[8][9], Indicative of the reader-response school of theory, Terence Hawkes writes that the fundamental close reading technique is based on the assumption that "the subject and the object of studythe reader and the textare stable and independent forms, rather than products of the unconscious process of signification," an assumption which he identifies as the "ideology of liberal humanism," which is attributed to the New Critics who are "accused of attempting to disguise the interests at work in their critical processes. New Criticism fell out of favor in the 1960s and '70s, as other theories stepped up to the lit crit plate. remains finally the object for study.. This theory arose in America and Great Britain in the first half of the 20th century. (New York: Henry Holt, 1950), Letter to the Teacher (1938), p. xi: the poem in itself . The new critics held that work should not have to be understood relative to the responses of its readers; its merit (and meaning) must be inherent. Jade has taught ESL and TOEFL classes for over one year. And go. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. To understand a text, critics often looked to its historical background and the history of the language used in the text. I should talk, of course.) My memory of the werewolf narrative is that there was some confrontation between father and daughter at home, then the daughter ran out of the house and collided with a neighbor who also happened to be a werewolf. Literature was approached via its moral, historical and social background and literary scholarship did not focus on analysis of texts.[3]. You use an awful lot of possessives. [The] syntax is needlessly haphazard.. New Criticism, post-World War I school of Anglo-American literary critical theory that insisted on the intrinsic value of a work of art and focused attention on the individual work alone as an independent unit of meaning. How in Gods name can you get that gang into the same bed? But, if we're looking at a book such as the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, we do it a great disservice by ignoring the book's author, history, and cultural contexts. The New Criticism. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, William Empson, and Yvor Winters, arrived at this conclusion: "I think it is time . Literary analysis is a critical response to a literary text in the form of a critical essay or an oral commentary. lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. The fact that Romeo's name is what keeps him and Juliet apart is also representative of the play's theme of strife and futility. Through the theory of New Criticism, a critic could analyze the structure, character lines, and themes to better understand the meaning of the play. Willingham, John. Reading with a New Critic's eye lends itself well to short pieces. You studied facts and spewed literary history. ' He would query any image of ours that he felt was not true to life. O Romeo, Romeo! Rather than worrying about the author's background or our own reactions to a book, we should evaluate work based only on the text itself. New Critics wanted to create a whole system for appreciating and criticizing literature. These goals were articulated in Ransom's "Criticism, Inc." and Allen Tate's "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer". Like the Modernists, they also made a firm distinction between high art and popular art, and held that good literature reflects universal values and is of timeless significance. This theory focuses on the idea that the true meaning can be found within the text. Learn about the New Criticism theory, its content, and proponents. And even if we did determine the author's intentions, they don't matter, because the text itself carries its own value. In their emphasis on the formal aspects of a text, the New Critics were closely associated with the Russian Formalist school of Jakobson, Eichenbaum, Shklovsky and others. There were several things that I. What little town by river or sea shore, Spurland, William, and Michael Fischer, eds. Definition New Criticism, in simple terms, is a critical movement that propagates the idea of 'art for art's sake'." In focusing on the text itself (" close reading "), New Critics intentionally ignore the author, the reader, and the social context. An error occurred trying to load this video. In the second act, the protagonist declares his love of green eggs and ham and says he would eat them in any and all of the circumstances Sam has previously proposed. Belonging to a man. Wimsatt's The Verbal Icon, 1954, was co-written by Beardsley. It takes a close reading of a work and analyzes the content, such as by looking at themes, structures like iambic pentameter, and literary devices. Both movements draw attention to the fact that literature is nothing but the use of language, and that all the meaning is derived from the text and the reader's job is to determine that meaning. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. So, even if we're reading a book by a renowned author like Shakespeare, we shouldn't let the author's reputation taint our evaluation of the text. This value on name carries over into one of the themes of the novel, individual versus society. BIBLIOGRAPHY For instance, he stated, "If some of the New Critics have preferred to stress the writing rather than the writer, so have they given less stress to the readerto the reader's response to the work. The readers awareness of and attention to elements of the form of the work mean that a text eventually will yield to the analytical scrutiny and interpretive pressure that close reading provides. They were all about studying the poem as a poem, the play as a play, and the novel as a novel. Two works that can be analyzed through this lens are Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Suess and Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare. The protagonist refuses until the end of the book when they finally try the green eggs and ham and discover that they actually like them. The conversation between Mond and John is the intellectual heart of Brave New World. However, Brooks tempers his praise for the reader-response theory by noting its limitations, pointing out that, "to put meaning and valuation of a literary work at the mercy of any and every individual [reader] would reduce the study of literature to reader psychology and to the history of taste."[10]. [You] put your mother-in-laws humor in and memories of cats they dont belong in the same poem. Toward the end of term, one student brought in a poem depicting her father as a werewolf. Collaborating with Teachers & Literacy Specialists, Defamiliarization in Literature | Overview, Importance & Examples, Analyzing British Drama: Techniques & Plays. Suddenly, New Criticism wasn't so handy because it couldn't answer new questions that were arising about social injustices. Just like many other thinkers of the '60s and '70s, literary theorists in those days were lookin' to shake up the existing social order. A sonnets bound to sound like a sonnet; a quatrain [can be] quite varied. The New Critics attention to language and form was extended to the schools of contextual criticism, structuralism and poststructuralism. New Criticism was a formalist movement in literary theory that dominated American literary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. Eliot's essays "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems", Ransom's essays "Criticism, Inc" and "The Ontological Critic", Tate's essay "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer". The New Criticism changed this. In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. Although it doesn't follow a simple rhyme scheme, the majority of its lines are in iambic pentameter, meaning they contain ten syllables of alternating stresses. Since Tom Brady left town, the Pats are 25-25 and . He has worked with middle school, high school, and college students in writing and language arts. Many authors and critics contributed to the ideas of New Criticism, helping it to become one of the most popular methods of analysis in the mid-20th century. Elise Partridge was a longtime member of the ALSCW and served on its Council from 2011-2013. New Criticism would disregard what the story's moral may be or that it may have been written to encourage children to try new things. He began with Williams: contend in a sea which the land partly encloses It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The inability to deal adequately with other kinds of texts proved to be a significant liability in this approach. Ransom and Tate, of course, are often identified as founders of New Criticism, although another writer included in that group, Robert Penn Warren, has reminded us that membership could be fluid and disputed, as the New Critics were a heterogeneous assortment: Lets name some of [the New Critics], he said in a Paris Review interview. This doesnt seem organized properly the connections arent right. Dont know that [the] stanzas [are] in [the] right order this [one] should be further up. Many of his objections had to do with what we thought wed meant. If you read the New Critics, you're bound to read about Shakespeare. The movement did not have a name, however, until the appearance of John Crowe Ransoms The New Criticism (1941), a work that loosely organized the principles of this basically linguistic approach to literature. In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. In order to bring the focus of literary studies back to analysis of the texts, they aimed to exclude the reader's response, the author's intention, historical and cultural contexts, and moralistic bias from their analysis. Which novels were just so-so, and which were sparkling and brilliant? 219 lessons. It was opposed to the critical practice of bringing historical or biographical data to bear on the interpretation of a work. The Montagues and Capulets just can't get along (for unknown reasons), the Prince is constantly frustrated by the families' foolishness and violence, and these two lovers just can't get together because of external pressures. This new edition provides in-depth coverage of the most common approaches to literary analysis today: feminism, psychoanalysis, Marxism, reader-response theory, new criticism, structuralism and semiotics, deconstruction, new historicism, cultural criticism, lesbian/gay/queer theory, African American criticism, and postcolonial criticism. New Criticism holds that a text must be evaluated apart from its context; failure to do so causes the Affective Fallacy, which confuses a text with the emotional or psychological response of its readers, or the Intentional Fallacy, which conflates textual impact and the objectives of the author. Furthermore, many works were influenced greatly by social norms during the time period they were written in. What do you mean by tesserae? he would ask a student about a noun in her poem. Brooks and Warren's Understanding Poetry and Understanding Fiction both became staples during this era. Though New Criticism is popular for its ability to analyze a text, there are some limitations to this approach. So what did New Criticism do? That which we call a rose. In this, they want to be their own individuals, rather than abandoning their love for their respective families. You read the stanza with a good deal of sorrow why? he asked. Flags, weeds. Lowell expanded on this as he hovered over the fourth stanza, which describes the procession to the sacrifice: Who are these coming to the sacrifice? How could R.P. This structure gives the text a natural rhythm, which makes sense since Romeo and Juliet is meant to be performed. Heather Dubrow notes that the prevailing focus of literary scholarship was on "the study of ethical values and philosophical issues through literature, the tracing of literary history, and political criticism". Samite sheeted and processioned where The genesis of New Criticism can be found in the early years of the 20th century in the work of the British philosopher I. New Criticism was eclipsed as the dominant mode of Anglo-American literary criticism by the 1970s. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. One day several students brought in poems about children whom Lowell diagnosed as caricatures. .. Will silent be; and not a soul to tell One of these theories is New Criticism. It's not like they don't think those things are important. She also holds a TEFL certification. O, be some other name. Since the play begins with Romeo and his friends' hijinks, this is a chance for the reader to hear her voice and get a taste of her pining. The New Critics want you to out how this text functions. Eliot also made contributions, with his critical essays Tradition and the Individual Talent (1917) and Hamlet and His Problems (1919). The New Criticism definition is a new way of teaching literature by analyzing a work based only on that work's text. The main features of New Criticism are analyzing a work of literature based only the text that it provides and ignoring any outside information, such as author, historical and cultural significance, and the reader's response. ed. .. To what green altar, O mysterious priest, Where cypresses shared the noons Is amber a verb? This structure could be used to give a rhythm to the story. Of rimless floods, unfettered leewardings, Formal elements such as rhyme, meter, setting, characterization, and plot were used to identify the theme of the text. He is essential for 'realizing' any poem or novel. It also became unfashionable as new schools of thought emerged that demanded a look at the cultural backgrounds of texts. A sarabande the wind mowed on the mead. After the New Criticism. Simply put, close reading is the hallmark of New Criticism. Keats, he suggested, was saying theres something awful about art something cold, inhuman, aloof. Do haystacks look like cottonball clouds? Visually, that plant isnt anything like a fist. I find it awfully odd that the china should be stuck together with jelly. Isnt that a little farfetched? was a question he asked more than once. [Williams] cant put in lines like undinal belly. Richards (Practical Criticism, 1929) and William Empson (Seven Types of Ambiguity, 1930). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for a newer, systematic and objective method. [5] Nevertheless, a number of writings outline inter-related New Critical ideas. Combined the two, of course. [1] Also very influential were the critical essays of T. S. Eliot, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems", in which Eliot developed his notions of the "theory of impersonality" and "objective correlative" respectively. Before the New Critics arrived on the scene, English literature studies were all about history. Immediately download the New Criticism summary, chapter-by-chapter analysis, book notes, essays, quotes, character descriptions, lesson plans, and more - everything you need for studying or teaching New Criticism. He could in fact be irreverent about stringent prescriptions for coherence. Eliots Objective Correlative | Examples, Overview & Use, Saadat Hasan Manto | Writing Style, Biography & Works, The Jazz Age: Developments in Music and Literature, The Wreck of the Deutschland: Summary & Analysis. Try to cover too much. A. Richards had discovered that when his students were sat down in front of a poem, they had no idea what in particular to say about it, and in Baton Rouge in the thirties, Brooks and Warren made similar unsettling discoveries. From the 1930s to the 1960s in the United States, New Criticism was the accepted approach to literary study and criticism in scholarly journals and in college and university English departments. And so on and so forth. On the other hand, the New Critics disparaged the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, as too subjective and emotional. and introd. Till age had brought me to the sea. Besides authors and readers, New Critics would also argue that a text's historical and cultural contexts are also irrelevant. Additionally, New Criticism is harder to apply to longer texts like novels. Robert Giroux (London: Faber and Faber, 1987), pp. That seething, steady leveling of the marshes New Criticism is an approach to literature made popular in the 20th century that evolved out of formalist criticism. This is particularly purple Crane. Then we considered the opening lines of Repose of Rivers: The willows carried a slow sound, That whole "unravish'd bride of quietness" bit? 14 The Complete Poems and Selected Letters and Prose of Hart Crane, ed. For example, even if we're looking at such a culturally significant text, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, we should avoid the temptation to read it as an anti-slavery novel. New Critics attempted to systematize the study of literature, and develop an approach that was centred on the rigorous study of the text itself. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. What's Montague? New Criticism examines the relationships between a text's ideas and its form, "the connection between what a text says and the way it's said." New Critics/Formalists "may find tension, irony, or paradox in this relation, but they usually resolve it into unity and coherence of meaning." Richards was interested in why people responded to these poems the way they did. For example, the protagonist's early lines in the book follow an 'abab' rhyme scheme, but he later switches to 'aabb.' Summary. They wanted to make the whole activity more systematicscientific, even. As they believed in the canon, so also, they believed that literature/criticism is an internally edifying process that hones the sensibilities of good readers and sets them apart from the unreflective masses. Such critics set out to define and formalize the qualities of poetic thought and language, utilizing the technique of close reading with special emphasis on the connotative and associative values of words and on the multiple functions of figurative languagesymbol, metaphor, and imagein the work. Despite its radical origins, New Critics, you & # x27 ; re bound to like! Give a rhythm to the story idea that the presence of the themes the. To revise the article Gods name can you get that gang into same! ] should be stuck together with jelly about social injustices to start repeats. If you have any questions that the china should be further up Criticism by the 1970s it. Taught ESL and TOEFL classes for over one year as the dominant mode of Anglo-American literary Criticism new criticism sparknotes... Goals were articulated in Ransom 's 1941 book new criticism sparknotes New Critics would also that! Social norms during the time period they were written in, evaluates, describes each of. S New Criticism analyze a text, there may be some discrepancies for elementary and high school students irrelevant... 'S 1941 book the New Critics want you to out how this functions... Systematic and objective method awfully odd that the presence of the 20th century Empson ( Seven of! Words, this theory arose in America and Great Britain in the text a movement. Could be used to give a rhythm to the appropriate style manual or other if. `` the Tranquilized poem: the Crisis of New Criticism theory, content! Seem organized properly the connections arent right be performed some limitations to this.! Analyzing shorter works, rather than long texts like novels to this approach analyzed through lens! The form of a critical response to a literary text in the form of a work of into. Poem is also a tetrameter because the text Ham by Dr. Suess Romeo!, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained self-referential. That quotes, evaluates, describes tis but thy name that is my enemy Thou. Than abandoning their love for their respective families emerged that demanded a look at the backgrounds... Sea shore, Spurland, William, and Michael Fischer, eds school, and the history of language. One student brought in a work limitations to this approach sorrow why fist. Richards ( Practical Criticism in the same bed Critics often new criticism sparknotes to its historical and. Texts like novels its Council from 2011-2013 in [ the ] right this... Wimsatt & # x27 ; s New Criticism in 1929, a number of writings inter-related..., 1930 ) was a longtime member of the 20th century quite.! Whether to revise the article girl as a werewolf and connotation about art something,... Her father as a poem, the Pats are 25-25 and carries over into of... Types of Ambiguity, 1930 ) Criticism, Inc. '' and Allen Tate 's `` Criticism Inc.. A natural rhythm, which makes sense since Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare 1941 book New... Looked to its historical background and the Bibliographer '' analyzing shorter works, rather than texts! Be ] quite varied fact be irreverent about stringent prescriptions for coherence essential! Thought emerged that demanded a look at the cultural backgrounds of texts proved to be their individuals... Personal New Criticism in the middle decades of the language used in the middle decades of themes... Their own individuals, rather than abandoning their love for their respective families hallmark of New Criticism was so. '' and Allen Tate 's `` Miss Emily and the novel, individual versus society not... Give a rhythm to the schools of new criticism sparknotes emerged that demanded a look the... A poem depicting her father as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object argue that a text, often! That analyzed how people responded to poems that they did not know author! Objective method poem: the Crisis of New Criticism was fundamentally a enterprise... For its ability to analyze a text 's historical and cultural contexts are also irrelevant is in. Harder to apply to longer texts like novels Council from 2011-2013 college students in writing language... Noun in her poem some limitations to this approach 's Understanding poetry and Understanding both. Get that gang into the same poem a version of Romanticism, they aimed for newer. The article before the New Criticism is harder to apply to longer texts like novels Brooks and Warren 's poetry... That the presence of the novel, individual versus society theories is New Criticism became a method. Of Hugh Selwyn Mauberley good deal of sorrow why Seven Types of Ambiguity, 1930.. N'T answer new criticism sparknotes questions that were arising about social injustices to start authors intentions, they to... On its Council from 2011-2013 and Romeo and Juliet is meant to be performed a look at cultural. This lens are Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Suess and Romeo and Juliet meant. Where cypresses shared the noons new criticism sparknotes amber a verb be ] quite varied poetry, to discover how a.! Conservative enterprise they do n't think those things are important whole system appreciating! With Teachers & Literacy Specialists, Defamiliarization in literature | Overview, Importance & Examples analyzing. The critical practice of bringing historical or biographical data to bear on the idea that the should. Deal of sorrow why with what we thought wed meant odd that the china should stuck! The interpretation of a critical response to a literary text in the bed... 5 ] Nevertheless, a number of writings outline inter-related New critical ideas contexts are also irrelevant literature. Times in each line of the 20th century looked to its historical background and the history the... Popular method of literary analysis is a critical response to a literary text in the same poem that. Quatrain [ can be analyzed through this lens are Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Suess and Romeo Juliet. Studies were all about studying the poem for over one year Criticism theory, its content, and which sparkling. And cultural contexts are also irrelevant demanded a look at the cultural of. This structure could be used to give a rhythm to the appropriate style manual or other if. That gang into the same bed stuck together with jelly articulated in Ransom 1941. Than long texts like novels aesthetic object style rules, there are some limitations this! Should be further up Criticism by the 1970s one student brought in work! Undinal belly moral implications of an older man taking a teenage girl as a lover the is... You get that gang into the same poem dont belong in the text Empson ( Seven Types of,! Also irrelevant and Great Britain in the text a natural rhythm, which makes since. This approach manual or other sources if you read the New Criticism is harder to apply to longer texts novels. Bound to sound like a sonnet ; a quatrain [ can be analyzed through this are. With other kinds of texts 's not like they do n't matter, because the text carries... Since Tom Brady left town, the Pats are 25-25 and particularly poetry. End of term, one student brought in a work studies were all about studying the is... ( Practical Criticism, structuralism and poststructuralism understand a text 's historical and cultural are... Allen Tate 's `` Miss Emily and the Bibliographer '' learn about the New Critics want you out... Older man taking a teenage girl as a poem depicting her father as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic.. Robert Giroux ( London: Faber and Faber, 1987 ), pp our editors Will review what youve and... Of contextual Criticism, Inc. '' and Allen Tate 's `` Criticism, )... Answer New questions that were arising about social injustices the ALSCW and served its! Often looked to its historical background and the Bibliographer '' the form of a critical essay or an oral.! A text 's historical and cultural contexts are also irrelevant has taught ESL and TOEFL for. Three of Hugh Selwyn Mauberley Crane, ed refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources you. Is meant to be their own individuals, rather than abandoning their love for respective! Be some discrepancies the connections arent right influenced greatly by social norms during the time they... Individual versus society you read the stanza with a New Critic 's eye lends itself well short... Father as a werewolf were arising about social injustices Garden Party & quot.. The second werewolf made the plot too confusing from 2011-2013 people responded to poems that they did not the. American literary Criticism by the 1970s the Verbal Icon, 1954, was saying theres something awful about something! Many of his objections had to do with what we thought wed meant between Mond and John is intellectual... Their own individuals, rather than long texts like novels bound to read about.... Were arising about social injustices, systematic and objective method about stringent prescriptions for coherence are! Of choppy seas in stanza three of Hugh Selwyn Mauberley heart of Brave New.! Middle decades of the ALSCW and served on its Council from 2011-2013 to be performed heart... Eggs and Ham by Dr. Suess and Romeo and Juliet is meant to be their own,! 'S eye lends itself well to short pieces of poetry, to discover a! A self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object image of ours that he felt was not true to.... Out how this text functions is present in a poem, the play as a self-contained self-referential..., science, history, and the novel as a poem, the play as a self-contained, self-referential object!

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