Control of ventilation during sleep. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. 121. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Both frequency and voltage of theta waves in rats generally increase during oniric activity, as depicted in figure 7, and in figure 8 a clearcut episode of visual oniric activity is expressed as a potent increase in theta waves frequency and voltage, concomitantly with a burst of eye movements. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Although such movements are not always obviously compatible with the dream content (27), as should be expected (see below), as a rule they can be related to the dreams. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan 41. 129. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Chase MH, Morales FR. 10. Accordingly, the H reflex, an equivalent to the Achillean reflex that is provoked not by stretching the gastrocnemius tendon but by applying electrical pulses to its afferents in the sciatic nerve, is highly depressed during this phase of sleep (48). Disclaimer. 115. The command character of theta waves is probably the reason why such potentials occur almost simultaneously in different brain structures. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. 101. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. 63. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. Therefore, alpha-coeruleus nucleus is mobilized by the mechanisms that generate desynchronized sleep and exerts its inhibitory action through the reticulospinal pathways, as well as through pathways that go to the brain stem motor nuclei. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. 97. Consciousness in waking and dreaming: the roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in determining similarities and differences. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. 127. In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Recently, theta waves frequency were proved in our Laboratory to be linearly related to intelligence in rats, as evaluated by the time necessary to learn operant conditioning tasks (77). It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. Brain Res 1967;5:221-35. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. For example, it could refer to a goal that you want to reach within your lifetime or zoning out and daydreaming during the day. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. 135. In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. 103. 73. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Harvey Lect 1963;58:233-97. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. 125. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. As commented upon concerning visual movements, the span of rostrum movements does probably reflect the distance of the olfactory source. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. 100. Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. On the functional role of consciousness. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. 49. 33. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. 109. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. It is not known if such a mechanism does exist in humans; if it exists, what is highly possible, we can reason that it is the activity of the chemoreceptor system that senses pO2 that keeps us alive during desynchronized sleep. The pressure also exhibits a series of bumps, that may be related to dreaming activity (figure 6) (62). Rothschuch KR. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. 2. The subjects of dreams are broad-ranging and complex, incorporating self-image, fears, insecurities, strengths, grandiose ideas, sexual orientation, desire, jealousy and love". (ed. Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. (eds.) The meaning of dreams. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. J Sleep Res 1993;2:188-92. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. Would you like email updates of new search results? ), Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). 99. Milbrandt J. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help 110. Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. Nat Rev Neurosci. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. government site. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Such patterns mimic oniric eye movements, which may occur in functional coincidence or not with the visual scenes that are dreamed of. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. 1. The value of r is as high as 0.9618 when theta waves in the hippocampal CA1 field of one side are matched with those in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis, what points to a close temporal relationship between theta waves in hippocampus and in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Noda H, Adey WR. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. Foulkes D. Children's dreams. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. Inasmuch as all this relevant knowledge is entirely ignored, we hope the present review may help in rescuing it (4). Sleep Res 1973;4:65. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). Brain Res 2002, submitted. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Those that are specific to certain behaviors. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Revonsuo A. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. 31. The other is that dreams are caused 68. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. 66. 78. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. They may well be activated during the behaviors caused by dreams (and which are not the dreams but their consequences), that are expressed as eye, head, lips, tongue, fingers, legs and other movements, that is, the motor components of the oniric behaviors. 106. Hobson JA. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Experimental study. Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. 34. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Of desynchronized sleep as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored dream in... And preserve neural pathways, Loftis M, Sferruzza F, Violani C. dream recall in brain-damaged patients ( )!, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF reflect the distance of the olfactory source in coincidence... Holm S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF J Pers.. 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